Iconographic Parallels Between the Local Coinages of Central Italy and Baetica In the First Century BC more

ACTA NUMISMATICA - Director: Leandre V1LLAR0NGA Cap de Redaccio: Miguel CRUSAFONT Skcrktaria de Redaccio: Anna M. RALAGUER SOCIETAT CATALANA D'ESTUDIS NUMISMATICS INSTITUT D'ESTUDIS CATALANS BARCELONA, 1995 Sumari Introduccio: A la memoria del Dr. Miquel Tarradell per L. Villaronga.................................... 9 Memoria de les activitats de la Societat Catalana d'Estudis Numismatics durant 1'any 1994 (A.M.B.)................ 11 Mon antic Villaronga, L. L'emissio emporitana arrib cap de be i revers de creu puntejada de la segona meitat del segle V aC.............. 17 Gozalbes, Manuel-EscRivA, Carlos.Zs/ tesoro de Jalance.......... 35 Stannard, CliveJconographic parallels between the local coinages of central Italy and Baetica in the first century BC.......... 47 Medieval Grierson, Philip. An Acci triens of King Ervig (680-7)............ 99 Balaguer, Anna M.- Puig i Ferrete, Ignasi M. El fans de monedes medievals d'Arago i Navarra de la dinastia aragonesa del Gabinet Numismatic de Catalunya................... 101 Barrandon, J.N. - Crusafont i Sabater, M - Joussemet, J. Identifi- cacio amb andlisi per metodes nuclears d'alguns florins de Perpinya. Altres questions referents als florins Catalans...... 121 Iconographic parallels between the local coinages of central Italy and Baetica in the first century BC CLIVESTANNARD 1 THE L1RI ASSEMBLAGE The purpose of this note is to draw attention to a number of unequivocal iconographic parallels between certain unpublished coinages of the first century BC from central Italy and the so-called ''plomosmonetiformes' of Baetica, southern Spain.1 It is a report on work in progress, and its purpose is to request Spanish numismatists to bring further specimens and related issues that they may know of to my attention.2 In publishing these central Italian pieces, I have drawn upon material that I gathered over the last ten years, for systematic publication in due course. I became aware of the existence and importance of the material, while studying 'foreign'—that is, non-Roman—coins reported to have come from the River Liri or Garigliano, at the Roman colony of Minturnae, published, in trade or in private collections. I have recorded a few thousand such pieces. Within this material, a few hundred unattributed or misattributed pieces stood out; many 1 The major published source is Ant6n Casariego, Gonzalo Cores y Francisco Pliego, Catdlogo de Plomos Monetiformes de la Hispania Antigua (Madrid, 1987) = Plomos. 2 Preferably in the form of plaster casts, and, failing that, photographs, c/o Acta Numismatica, Escola Pia, 85,08201 Sabadell (Barcelona). 48 CLIVE STANNARD could be grouped together, by style, fabric,3 type and legend. These I presume to be local issues, and describe as the 'central Italian' assemblage.4 With agrowing understanding of this material, I investigated the unattributed material in a number of museums, and identified a variety of further issues and many more specimens.^ Various overstrikes date the bulk of the assemblage to the 90s Be, or later. It includes both bronze and lead pieces, the latter—as in the case of the Baetican plomos monetiformes—struck rather than cast. Like the plomos, the Liri lead frequently has uncial values, which raises the most important question of whether they were used as a medium of exchange, and, if so, who issued them, and why. Some of the pieces are clearly unofficial, most obviously the rough copies of Republican quadrantes that are frequent in the Liri material.6 The bulk of the assemblage, however, is not merely imitative: issuers are often identified; 3 In particular, many of Ihe bronze issues share a dumpy, triangular fabric. Another characteristic of both lead and bronze is the very frequent use of wreathed borders. 4 Forpublished material, see three articles in the Numismatic Chronicle ( Bruce W. Frier and Anthony Parker, 'Roman coins from the River Liri', NC 7 10 (1970), pp. 89-109; W.E. Metcalf, "Roman coins from the River Liri. \l\NCl 14 (1974), pp. 42-52; and W.E. Liane Houghtalin. "Roman coins from the River Liri. Ill'. NC 145 (1985), pp. 67-81). The same coins are covered in S. Dominic Ruegg, Underwater investigations at Roman Minturnae, Litis- GariglianoRiver (Partille, Sweden. 1995), pp. 61-73; lead material is described in chapter IX. pp. 148-152. .See also R. Martini. Monetazione bronzea romana tardo-repubbliama. I (Milan, 1988), p. 96-7. on the material from the river Liri in commerce. Brother Dominic also kindly provided me with hand-lists of the coins catalogued in Liri I and //. 5 In recording material for my study, I impose an "accession number' on each piece, which uniquely identifies it. An accession number is composed of two elements: a whole number, signifying the block of coins in which the piece was recorded, and a decimal number in three places, signifying the individual piece within that block. I shall cite specimens by accession number in this paper, so that they may be identified when my study is published. Coins with the accession block number, 0, have no geographic provenance (and are mainly from public collections); 7 indicates Baetican issues mentioned in Plomos of which I have not recorded an actual specimen; 31 is Sciior J.R. Cayon's important collection of Baetican lead; 33 is material shown me by Sciior F. Pliego in Seville; other numbers usually indicate a Liri provenance. I thank Senor Cayon and Senor Pliego for their assistance. 6 Michael H. Crawford, 'Unofficial imitations and small change under the Roman Republic' .AIIN29 (1982), pp. 139-163, has published almost acorpus of these unprepossessing objects. 'I suspect the phenomenon is essentially of the first three-quarters of the first century [BC]... I suspect that the imitations of small denominations [were] evoked by the need for small change'. He suggests that such imitations circulated in "Italy and the Romanised provinces of Narbonensis and what later became Tarraconensis', and points out that 'the imitation of Republican bronzes is not forthe most part a Roman phenomenon'. I would rather 1CONOGRAPH1C PARALLELS 49 groups of issues are sometimes co-ordinated by denomination in a way that does not smack of random copying; and there is a distinct and characteristic range of types, not closely linked to the Republican coinage, which it is the purpose of this paper to describe, when they are shared with the Baetican issues. On the other hand, other factors suggest that many of the issues are not regular state coinages: many are anepigraphic: none have legends explicitly identifying a place of issue; and the types of many seem 'anecdotal' (acommon characteristic is full length figures on both faces)7. My working hypothesis is that a range of issuers and reasons for issue must be assumed. Some may be civic or emergency issues from the time of the social wars down to the civil wars; others may be issued by trading groups as local or "company' coinage; and some may be struck by individuals for motives ranging from public service to fraud, in the context of a general lack of small change in the late Republic.8 attribute the bulk of the material to central Italy, while recognising that various groups of imitations—which do not concern me here—originated elsewhere, such as the Andalusian semis imitations discussed by Leandre Villaronga,' I mitaciones de moneda romana republicana de bronce en la Penfnsula', Gaceta NumismMca 79 (1985), pp. 33-40. One horde of these imitations, associated with coins of Carteia ending c. 70 BC, is published in FranciscaChavez, 'Halla/.gode un con junto monetal aorillas del Guadalete (Cadiz)', in Studia Paleohispanica el Indogernuinica: J. Untermann ab amicis hispanicis oblata' .Aurea Siwciila 10(1993), pp. 1 17-129. 7 Issues often have what look like two 'reverse* types. However, the various couplings of dies across issues makes it clear that they were interchangeable; there is no way of telling which was set in the pile and which in the trussel; so that 'obverse' and 'reverse' have little meaning. I showed such die mobility in 'Two-headed and two-tailed denarii in the Roman Republic', NC 147 (1987), pp. 160-3. and 'Two-headed and two-tailed denarii again", Annotazioni Numismatiche 1,17 (March 1995), pp. 361-3. 8 The much larger numbers of foreign coins associated with the local material may also have been pressed into service to supply small change. A phenomenon of note is the frequent over-striking of foreign coins with imitative Republican types: I have recorded overstrikes of Cos (SNG Dan 677-82), the Volcae Arecomici (BMC Celtic Coins, III, 215-229), and Cyrenaica (SNG Dan, given to the Ptolemies, Cyprus, uncertain mints, 685-90; see fn. 23). I have also recorded overstrikes of central Italian issues by other central Italian issues, and Republican pieces overstruck with local types. (The last are difficult to explain as resulting from a lack of small change.) There arc also various imitative pieces; Tcrmessus. Pisidia (die- linked to imitative Republican quadrantes): Panormus, Sicily, with barbarous legends (SNG Dan. Panormus. 533-542 are examples): and. I suspect, Ebusus (as discussed below). 50 CLIVE STANNARD 2 THE SPANISH MATERIAL I shall not here describe the foreign material,9 except to note briefly the Spanish coins it includes. Spanish mints other than Ebusus'°accountfor2.8per cent of the foreign assemblage; Ebusus itself accounts for a further 5.7 percent. This very high proportion of Ebusan coins in the Liri finds is particularly striking; Ebusus—with Marseille, Cyrenaica11 and Naples—is amongst the commonest foreign mints, and I have no easy explanation for the phenomenon. The frequency with which Ebusan bronze is found in Italy has already been documented,12 but the number of specimens in the Liri material shows the inadequacy of our understanding of this phenomenon.13 There are other unusual elements in the Ebusan material: a number of yet unpublished varieties are included; and more than half of the coins are of Campo's group XVIII, 71,14 which is far from common in Spain itself. I illustrate a characteristic specimen.15 9 oreign material includes a very wide range of non-Roman mints, from the fourth century BC to about the time of Christ. Dominique Gerin at the Bibliotheque nationale in Paris is studying this material, while I am studying the local coinages, and we will publish jointly. 10 At least the following mints are present (references are to Leandre Villaronga, Corpus Nummum Hispaniae ante Augusti Aetatem (Madrid, 1994) = CNHAA, and Andrew Burnett. Michel Amandry and Pere Pau Ripolles. Roman Provincial Coinage., Volume I (London and Paris, 1992) = RPC: Gadir: CNHAA 40-41 ? (2 pieces); Malaka: CNHAA 21, CNHAA 4 (2 pieces); Inciertasconescrituralibio-fenice: CNHAA 20; Untikesken: CNHAA 5 and67-70; Emporia: as CNHAA ? (2 pieces); CNHAA 64? (2 pieces); Kese: unit CNHAA ?; CNHAA 86, quarter CNHAA ? CNHAA 48, sixth CNHAA ?; Ilturo: CNHAA 16; Baitolo: CNHAA 5; Iltirkesken: CNHAA 1; Bolscan: CNHAA 8;Sekia: CNHAA 3; Kelse: CNHAA 9? (2 pieces); Bibilis: CNHAA 1?; Tanusia: CNHAA 1; Arse: CNHAA 31-2; CNHAA 33?; Ikalkusken: CNHAA 6?; Kastilo-Castulo: as CNHAA ?, CNHAA 43; Ilipense: CNHAA 4; Lastigi: CNHAA 5; Corduba: cf. CNHAA 1-8 (2 pieces); Cartagonova: CNHAA 2; Carteia: CNHAA 71?; Ilici: RPC 192; Imitaciones siglo I a.C: semis cf. CNHAA p. 427, 1-3. 11 Overwhelmingly SNG Dan, given to the Ptolemies, Cyprus, uncertain mints, 685-90; see fn. 23. 12 With published finds from, for example, Aeclanum (Mirabella Eclano), Cosa, Ordona (Foggia), the Paestum area. Roma. San Felicita(RoccaSan Felice), the Salerno area, Pompeii, Samo and Velia. 13 AttilioStazio, 'Rapporti traPompei edEbusus nelle Baleari alia lucedei rinvenimenti monetali',-4//A'2( 1955), pp. 33-57, suggested a link to the wine trade from Campania to Spain, but it is difficult to see how this could scatter Ebusan small change the length of Italy. 14 MartaCampo, Las monedas de Ebusus (Barcelona, 1976). IC0N0GRAPH1C PARALLELS 51 1 M 15 «* 1.9 5.003 The particular crudeness of the design sets it apart from other Ebusan issues. A feature worth noticing is that, on most of these pieces, the god Bes raises his left, rather than his right hand: I suspect this is due to very mechanical copying, and to the engraver failing to cut the die in a mirror-image of his model. I am inclined to regard the issue as imitative, and probably struck in northern Campania.161 date it, by association with the bulk of the local assemblage, to the 90s BC, or later. In support of such a date, I also illustrate a late anonymous quadrans struck over an Ebusan piece of Campo's group XVIII.17 2 Az 15 / 2.75 16.010 15 The information given when citing a piece, here and elsewhere, is: its sequential number, the metal, the diameter in mm., thedie axes, the weight in grammes, and the accession number. PbS stands for struck lead. 16 In recent publications, Marta Campo has accepted this proposal: 'Recientemente C. Stannard nos hizo observar que una gran cantidad de los ejemplares procedentes de la Peninsula Mlica, pertenecfanaestetipo,ademdsdeserfrecuentesenloscatdlogosdesubastas i tal ianos. El ti po Grupo X V11 -71 tiene unas caracten'sticas muy di ferentes a los del resto de esta serie. La representacion de Bes es extraordinariamcnte esquematica y junto al dios suele aparacer un signo parccido a unaT, difi'cilmente asimilable a ninguna letra punica... Todoello nos lleva tambien a reconsiderar el problema y en estar de acuerdo con la propuesta de C. Stannard sobre la posible acunacidn en la Peninsula Italica, concretamente en la zona de Campania de estos ejemplares... no hemos identificado ninguna moneda de este tipo hallado en la isla de Ibiza y en la Peninsula Ibe>ica, s6lo Empuries ha dado un ejemplar' ('Las monedas de Hbusus", in Jonuidcisdearqueologia fenico-punica VII. Trabajosdel Museo Arqueologico de Ibiza 31, p. 156). 17 The overtype is probably Cr. 339/4c (anonymous) of c. 91 BC. Even dated to the first quarter of the first century BC, it remains difficult to explain the phenomenon, or link the issue to an event in the island's history. One such event may be Sertorius' invasion of Ebusus and its recapture, though it is difficult to see just how this can explain imitative bronze issues in Campania: 'L'any 82 a.C, Sertori, que dcs dels territoris hispanics s'havia enfrontat a la dictadura de Sila, desembarca a Ei vissa i derrota la guarnici6 romana de 1' ilia, comendada per Anni. Pero, poc despres, Anni retorna amb una gran flota i cinq mil infants. Sertori li planteja una batalla naval, pero una forta tempestadispersa les seves naus i l'obliga a fugir, amb grans dificultats, amb els vaixells supervivents (Plutarc: Sertori, VII, I; Anni Floro: Bellum Sertorianum, II, 10)' (Benjami CostaiJordi H. Fernandez, "yDS//M(Eivissa). Historiad'un centre punic emissorde moneda', in Im Monedaal 'Eivissa Punica (Palma de Majorca, 1994), p. 29. 52 CLIVE STANDARD 3 COMMON TYPES 3.1 Man with a 'shovel' and askos One of the commonest types, in both the central Italian and the Baetican material, is a male figure, usually in a short tunic, that sometimes fails to conceal a large, flaccid phallus. I n other cases, he appears naked, and is often exaggeratedly ithyphallic. He most frequently carries a "shovel' on his shoulder, and an askos in his hand, or the askos alone; the askos also appears as an independent type. Both lead and bronze issues are known, and there are sometimes strikes of the same issue in the two metals, at different weights. 3.1.1 The central Italian material GROUP 1 Obv.-.Mnn striding left, a sack over his shoulder, and his right hand raised; DTOR to left: border of dots. Rev.:Man wearing tunic striding right, carrying an askos in his right hand; a 'shovel', on his shoulder; border of dots. 3 /E 19 9 5.80 0.497 Madrid (this coin)18 Obv:. Serpent-staff, club and eaduceus; border of dots. 4 JE 22 — 5.48 0.055 SNG Dan Romano- Sicilian 1064 (this coin) Obv.: Victory right; border of dots. The coin is ovcrstruck. The obverse undertype is illegible. The reverse undertype is a crab: the claws can be seen at 6 o'clock, facing downwards. 5 JE 15 i 4.88 0.056 SNG Dan Romano- Sicilian 1063 (this coin) 0/>v.:Head of Apollo facing; DTORCI to left and below; border of dots. /??v.:Lyre; unclear symbol to left: border of dots. Overstruck on a quadrans: the prow right and \ can be seen at 2 o"clock on the reverse. 6 JE 20 - 3.75 0.475 ANS 44.100.57778 (this coin) 18 I illustrate a number of pieces from the Madrid cabinet as central Italian. Much of the Madrid collection is made up of coins acquired in Italy at the time of the Spanish dominance; I could find no evidence of Spanish provenance for these pieces. ICONOGRAPHIC PARALLELS 53 mmmm id ii 12 m 14 1ft 15 17 is 21 t 20 57 CUVE STANNARD Obv.:Same, but no legend. 7 /E 17 2.95 0.265 Copenhagen uncertain (this coin) Bahrfeldt attributed no. 3 to Sicily in Roman times, from the one specimen he knew, in Berlin.19 Nos. 4 and 5 were attributed to Sicily in SNG Dan because of their similarity to the material Bahrfeldt had published. The undertype of no. 6 provides a date, probably of the late second, or early first century BC. GROUP 2 Obv.:Head of Janus; border of dots. Rev.'.Man wearing a tunic striding right, carrying askos in right hand; 'shovel' on his shoulder; N to left, border of dots. 8 m 17 5 2.51 0.146 Paris Z3151 (this coin) = Bahr. 1904 87 9 Az 13 5 1.89 0330 Berlin Lobbecke (this coin) /tev.:Same, but no monogram. 10 £ 14 0 2.04 0.329 Berlin Dresscl = Bahr. 1904 87 (pp. 434-5 and pi. V, 101) (this coin) The legend on no. 8, N, is one of the commonest in the central Italian assemblage. Various members of the Annia family use it as it is, or in a number of expanded forms.20 No. 8 is struck on wider flans, and is heavier than nos. 9 and 10.1 know of one piece like no. 8 struck on a quadrans, probably of the late second or early first century BC.21 19 M. Bahrfeldt, 'Dieromisch-sicilischenMiinzenaustierZeitderRepublik'./friwe.vMfrae de numismatique XII (1904); p. 435 and pi. 5,103. Bahrfeldt attributed to Sicily a number of what 1 believe to be central Italian issues. 20 I shall not here cite issues with types that do not relate to those of the Spanish material. Legends include N and L-NNI (linked by type to L-CAE and ST ATI TREBON), BNN. TNI and P N; and NN/SEX. For some of these, see group 21. below. 21 & 18 T 2.56 87,1 (this coin) 0.317 Berlin Lobbecke = Bahr. 1904 ICONOGRAPHIC PARALLELS 55 GROUP 3 as after c. 91 BC Obv.:Forepart of lion right. Small dies on a large flan; the borders of dots are of 13 mm diameter. Struck over a Republican semis. 11 M 27 / 10.42 0.187 Paris Ailly 977 = Rech. pi. LVIII, 9 = Bahr. 1904, p. 435, g (this coin). quadrans? Rev.:R&m standing right. 1 I mm diameter border of dots. Overstruck on Cyrenaica. 12 S. 17 \ 1.61 15.003 All other known specimens of no. 11 appear to be struck over Republican asses of the LexPapiria standard introduced in c. 91 BC.221 know three specimens of no. 12, all struck over Cyrenaica, on pieces probably acquired al ter 96 BC.23 GROUP4 Obv.:Beardless male head right. Rev.:Man striding right, on an exergual line, carrying an askos; OAVE up behind; border of dots. 13 PbS 16 \ 2.46 18.073 Obv. .Bust of Hercules seen from behind, with head turned left, and aclub on his right shoulder; border of dots. Rev.:Man striding left with a 'shovel' on his shoulder; C-AVE to left. 14 /E 21 / 6.77 0.499 Madrid (this coin) The last two pieces are of interest because the same issuer strikes both lead and bronze—if the common legend, in fact, indicates a single issuer 24 22 The fact of overstriking standard Republican coinage is important; the use of current coins as flans suggests that the products must have hadat least the value of the pieces sacrificed. 23 Obv.: Head of Zeus-Amon right; Rev. : Head-dress of Isis: this particular issue is one of the commonest foreign coins with a Liri provenance, accounting for c. 2.7 per cent of the foreign assemblage. It is also frequently overstruck with central Italian types. 'These are the coins which the Romans would have found in circulation at the time of their acquisition of Cyrenaica [in 96 BC). So abundant were they that they continued to circulate into Imperial times'; T.V. Buttrey, 'Crete and Cyrenaica', in A.M. Burnett and M.H. Crawford, eds.. The Coinage of the Roman World in the Late Republic (Oxford, 1987), p. 165. 24 Lead and bronze usually differstylistically, in that lead is usually struck in much higher relief than bronze. No. 14 is a typical example of the triangular flan that characterises many of the bronze issues. 56 CLIVE STANNARD GROUP5 Obv.:Head of Janus; /€ to left; border of dots. Rev.:Mnn in a short tunic, with large pendant phallus, advancing right, an askos in his left hand, a 'shovel' on his shoulder; border of dots. 15 PbS 21 «- 7.35 30.009 16 JE 14 / 0.86 11.001 These are lead and bronze strikes from the same pair of dies, which were clearly prepared for the larger lead flans.25 GROUP 6 Obv.:Eag\e with wings spread, right;26 border of dots. Rev.:Askos right. 17 JE 14 T 1.18 0.231 Copenhagen uncertain (this coin) Obv. .-Head of Hercules right; club on shoulder; border of dots. Rev.:C\ub, askos and, probably, a third object to the left, but not struck up; border of dots. 18 /E 17 I 4.34 0.254 Copenhagen uncertain (this coin) Obv..-Askos left. #ev..-Blaiik, or obliterated. 19 JE 15 2.03 0.486 Madrid (this coin) Obv.:Head of Vulcan27 wearing pileus right, tongs on shoulder; border of dots. 25 There is a wide spread of weights among pieces in most lead issues, and probably little precision in the standards. For what is worth, a statistical analysis of lead and bronze pieces in group 5, and in another group not listed here (because it does not share types with the Baetican series), gives the following results. N x s PbS 14 7.88g 2.77g JE 3 0.85g 0.15g From these figures, one may conjecture the relative values of JE:Pb at about 1:9 or 1:10. 26 The eagle with its wings spread is itself used on a small group of pieces, which I do not list here, for lack of Spanish parallels. 27 The head of Vulcan is itself a common type, which I consider in section 3.3. ICONOGRAPHIC PARALLELS 57 58 CLIVE STANNARD ifev.;Staff, askos and 'shovel' or rudder; border of dots. 20 AL 16 -* 1.72 0.245 Copenhagen uncertain (this coin) Obv.:Askos right. Rev.: Unreadable. 21 PbS 16 3.59 28.006 Nos. 17 to 21 are miscellaneous pieces, on which we have the askos without the man with the 'shovel'. 3.1.2 The Baetican material GROUP 7 Obv.. Naked man walking left, a 'shovel' inscribed V RUM over his left shoulder, holding out a bell in his right hand; V- S on either side; all in a laurel-wreath tied below. /?<?v.:Naked man. half kneeling right, his left leg forwards, pouring liquid from an askos; a phallus decorated with fillets downwards to right; Q/CO* ILI-Q- around; LVSO in linear tablet in exergue; all in a laurel-wreath with berries, tied below. 22 PbS 53 I 123.39 0.503 Plomos p. 26,1; Carmen Alfaro Asins, Numismatica y Medalh'stica, fig. 31 = Madrid (this piece) Obv. .Same, but 'shovel' uninscribed, and border of dots, instead of a wreath. Rev.:Same, but no decorated phallus, and no tablet in exergue. 23 PbS 52 113.0 7.002 Plomos p. 26, no. 2 0£>v.:Same as no. 22. Rev.:Axe, with handle left. 24 PbS 47 149.4 7.003 Plomos p. 26, no. 3 Ofov.-'Naked man, with large erect phallus, striding right, a 'shovel' on his left shoulder. NONIIO MINVS around; SJ between legs. Rev.-2%A\T I-AN" in two lines; border of dots. 25 PbS 51 "» 31.010 Plomos p. 27, no. 4; Cayon (this piece) Rev.:Pentagram; border of dots. 26 PbS 45 31.008 Plomos p. 27, no. 5; Cayon (this piece) 28 This reverse is also used on a piece with Obv.: Cock(?) left (Plomos p. 27, no. 6). 1CONOGRAPHIC PARALLELS 59 60 CLIVE STANNARD I know of the use of the pentagram on one central Italian piece. The pentagram is sufficiently ubiquitous for the parallel to be tenuous. Obv.:Head of Selinus right; border of dots. /frv: Pentagram; unreadable legend around: border of dots. 27 PbS 14 3.23 23.066 GROUP 8 Obv.: Bearded head of Vulcan wearing pileus right, tongs on shoulder; S before; all in wreath tied below. /?ev.:Naked man striding right, a 'shovel' on his shoulder; behind, a second, smaller figure striding righf.'N before; all in wreath tied below. 28 PbS 46 \. 31.010 Plomos p. 30, no. 17; Cay6n (this piece) quadrans^ Obv. . Beardless head of Vulcanf?) wearingpileus(l) right. Rev.: Naked man striding right, a 'shovel' over his left shoulder; — above. 29 PbS 36 68.6 7.007 Plomos p. 31, no. 24 Obv.: Beardless head of Vulcan left. Re v.: Same; no value-mark visible. 30 PbS 32 40.7 7.008 Plomos p. 31, no. 23 quadrans Obv.: Head of Vulcan, wearing/>/7<?//s right, tongs on shoulder; border of dots. Rev.. Man with 'shovel' on his shoulder striding right; 5 to right: border of dots. 31 JE 18 3.83 0.033 CHNAA p. 426; Lindgren European Mints 625 (this coin). Obv.:Beardless male head right; naked(?) man striding right, a 'shovel' over his shoulder; L-HERENI-C before. Rev.:Beardless male head right; ...ARCI-C around. 32 PbS 39-45 57.1-140.3 7.009 Plomos p. 32, no. 25 OM'.. Naked man striding right, a shovel' over his shoulder; ring, from which arc suspended two strigils and an aryballos to right.-™ 29 We may attempt another method of estimating the relative values of bronze and lead. If no. 29 is intended to stand for a semi-uncial bronze quadrans of c. 3.8g, then the /£:Pb ratio is about 1:20; in the case of no. 30, the ratio is about 1:12. 30 I thank Scfior Francisco de Paula Pdrez Sindreu for showing me the piece. M. Paz Garci'a-Bellido analyses it in 'Nuevos Documentos sobre Mineria y Agricultura Romanas en 62 CLIVE STANNARD Rev..-CELTE; askos(7) below; wreathe?) above. 33 PbS 26 / 8.69 0.576 Colcccion Gago 138, Sevilla = Plomos p. 8 (Celti). no. 2 (this piece) This is an important piece, because it links the man-with-a- 'shovel' group to the strigils-and-</r\7?<///«.s group (which I describe in section 3.2). I do not know another piece in either the Baetican or central Italian assemblages that makes this link. GROUP9 Obv.:Filleted bull's head, facing.31 Rev.:Naked man with large pendant phallus striding left, a 'shovel' over his shoulder; 11 on cither side; border of dots. 34 PbS 47-56 147.7-239.7 7.012 P/«wavp.27,no.7(this piece I GROUP 10 Obv.: Man wearing a short tunic striding left, carrying an askos, a 'shovel' over his shoulder; border of dots. /?<?v..Blank. 35 PbS 19 4.49 33.001 Pliego (this coin) 3.1.3 Discussion The man with the 'shovel' is an icon, with a fixed representation and standard attributes, not merely a casual image. In the Italian material, his attributes are as follows: he invariably wears a short tunic; a large, pendant phallus can sometimes be seen; he is always represented walking; and he carries cither his 'shovel' on his shoulder, or an askos, or both. I first took him—not noticing the phallus—for Ulysses, with the oar over his shoulder,32 because a short tunic, like he wears, is used for Ulysseson the KepubWcdndenariusserratus Hispania', Archivo Espafiol clc Archeolof>ia 59. nos. 153 and 154 (1986), p. 15. On balance. I doubt the attribution to Celti (Penaflor, Sevilla). 31 This piece is part of a large group with the bull's head type, which I do not describe here, because there are no central Italian parallels {Plomos 28-9, nos. 8-15: the reverse type is a boar right): on/>/<>/»<« 15 is probably the decorated phallus of my no. 22. The following legends appear in the group: T S/M-I.E. S/M-LE, A anckX. 32 Carrying the oar inland in expiation of his sins against Poseidon, until he meets a man who is so ignorant of the sea that he takes it for a winnowing-fan, as Teiresias instructs him on his visit to the underworld. ICONOGRAPH1C PARALLELS 64 CLIVE STANNARD of CMAMILIVS LIMENTANVS, Cr. 362/1, of c. 82 BC. The shepherd, Faustulus,33 wears the same tunic on another denarius, Cr. 235/1, SEXPOMFOSTLVS, of c. 137 BC. Moreover, a similarly dressed figure appears on other central Italian issues: Obv.: Wolf suckling twins right: border of dots. /tev..Ulysscs (or Faustulus) leaning on a staff, left: CIL around: border of dots. 36 £ 20 N 4.25 0.145 Paris Z3150 (this coin) 0ftv.:Same, bulficus Ruminalis behind. /tev./Same, but figure right, and no legend. 37 £ 18 3.31 26.012 CJGarrucci.pl.LXXX, 21: 'Enellacollezionc miache il rinvenni negli scavi di Vigna Vclluti in Palestrina*. But the Baetican material adds attributes that make this identification unlikely. These are: apparent nakedness; frequent ithyphallicism; and, on a number of pieces, the figure is ringing a bell.34 Is the man with the 'shovel' and askos a miner, in support of which one may cite the heavy exploitation by Rome of the Baetican mines? I see no direct evidence of suchan identi fication,35 and, in a number of cases, in both materials, the object the figure carries on his shoulder is clearly not a miner's shovel.36 In interpreting the type, we need to explain both the strange 'shovel', and the phallus.371 suggest that the man with the 'shovel' encompasses two separate types, the one being a representation of the other: firstly a farmer going to work, with an askos to water his plants,38 and a shovel or winnowing-fan on his 33 Ulysses/Faustulus also wears apileus and carries a stal l"; on Cr. 362/1, he wears a cloak as well: none of these attributes occur with the central Italian man-with-a-'shovel' type. 34 M. PazGarci'a-Bellido, 'Nuevos Documentos...', p. 28. describes the man with the bell as follows: 'Un capataz que con pala ancha al hombro va tocando la campanilla para indicar que el comienzo o el fin del trabajo ha llegado'. 35 As I discuss in section 3.3.3,1 do not believe that the other type cited as referring to mining, Vulcan, certainly docs so. 36 On the central Italian issue, no. 15, it seems to be composed of a oval central blade, with a 'horn' on either side. On the Baetican piece, no. 22, the instrument is inscribed, and could be interpreted as a standard of some sort. 37 I thy phallic figures are not part of the numismatic iconography of the Roman Republic, or of the Italian peninsula generally, in this period. 38 The askos looks very similar on all pieces xcept no. 33. where the mouth is so wide 1C0N0GRAPHIC PARALLELS 65 shoulder, and secondly a comic actor, playing such a person in the theatre, sometimes with a stylised inscribed 'shovel' ?9 The comic actor can be identified by the phallus shown on some of these issues: his costume 'consisted of a pair of loose-fitting drawers, grotesquely padded and hung with an oversized phallus. The latter was scarcely concealed by the inadequate length of an ill- fitting tunic worn on the upper part of the body' ;4<) the figure on no. 15 clearly meets this description.41 Support comes also from the fact that the central Italian lead issues include a number with theatrical themes (masks and actors declaiming).42 An example is the following piece, which appears to show a theatre scene, with an actor wearing such a costume; note the askos lying on the ground. Obv.: Head of Vulcan right, wearing apileus; tongs on shoulder; border of dots. Rev.: Man in short tunic, a phallus hanging between his thighs, advancing right, holding a spear(?) before him; askos before; border of dots. 38 PbS 20 i 3.53 23.041 In the case of the Baetican issues, the figure often appears naked, and generously ithyphallic. It is probable that this is a local variant of the actor's costume, and that he is not naked, but wearing a padded costume with the phallus attached, without the tunic.43 that the vessel looks almost like acup—a wide-mouthed, probably metal, vessel with ahandle on one side, to facilitate pouring. 39 If it seems unlikely that there are two separate types, then I suggest that all the images are of an actor playing a farmer. 40 Ian Jenkins, Greek and Roman Life, (London, 1986), p. 54.1 illustrate a scene from an Apulian bell-krater of c. 380 BC, showing such costumes (BM Cat. Vases Fl 51). I thank the British Museum lor Permission. 41 'From about 50 BC a form of farce known as mimus had gained great popularity, particularly among the lower classes living in towns. The Roman "mime" differed from Greek comedy in that actors did not wear masks(ibid. p. 55); our type appears not to be masked. 42 Including the nos. 109-111 of this article, where the obverse type is a theatre-mask. 43 Nos. 25 and 26 are ithyphallic: note the enormous comic testicles hanging to below the knees; two dies are involved, which shows that this is not a casual die-break. It is probable that the figure on no. 22 is wearing a costume with padded hips, and the phallus can, in any case, be seen hanging below his buttocks. No. 34 shows a pairof drawers, with a flaccid phallus attached, worn without the tunic. The small figure on no. 32 is wearing the tunic, without a phallus visible. 66 CLIVE STANNARD The 'shovel' and askos are obviously linked attributes (not only when carried by the figure, but perse, as on no. 20). In a theatrical context, I suspect that the figure may be parading with a stylised, inscribed spade as a banner, to announce a performance (which would explain the characteristic walking pose); the bell would have served to draw public attention. Why was this type used, particularly on issues that appear to have had a monetary function?44 It seems to have been of considerable cultural importance. Could the mime have had a ritual value in promoting fertility (as with the earlier Greek comedies)? The askos—with its independent role as a type; see nos. 17- 21—may have had some ritual function in this context45 It is likely that issue no. 32 shows the portraits of the public men who sponsored a mime; the secondary46 image of the man with the 'shovel' records their munificence. No. 13 seems to be a similar piece from central Italy,47 with a portrait on the obverse, and the man-with-the-shovel type in full on the reverse. This does not explain the use of the type on the anonymous issues. For reasons I discuss in section 4,1 believe many of these issues (particularly those with value-marks) had a monetary function, and were not merely tickets (giving entry, for example, to the theatre). The type clearly had a strong, independent importance, and was probably understood as referring to the issuing authority. The context is agriculture, almost certainly oil-production. Chic has argued that the plomos are linked to the oil-trade from Baetica to Rome, by comparing the legends on the plomos with the stamps and titulipicti on the amphora shards of Monte Testaccio in Rome. He goes further to suggest that the figure pouring from the askos on the reverse of no. 22 is a canting type for a diffusor of olive oil 48 I find this unconvincing: the vessel on no. 22 is 44 Note the quadrantal value-marks on nos. 29 and 31, and that bronze nos. 11 and 12 appear to form linked as and quadrans denominations, the as being, in addition, struck on circulating coin. The lead asses (?) nos. 22-26 and 28, and quadrans nos. 29 and 30 are also linked denominations; further linked issues are described in Plomos. This argues against them being mere tickets, or tokens, as I discuss in section 4. 45 On no. 22 it appears as if the figure is watering a decorated phallus; this may be fertility symbolism, or be part of the play. 46 That there were two donors, each requiring a portrait, probably squeezed it into this position. 47 The two issues are stylistically very similar. 48 Genaro Chic Garcia, 'Diffusores olearii y tesserae de plomo', Revisla de estudios locales 5 (1994), pp. 7-12. "... en el reverso [las] fichas muestran la imagen de un hombre desnudo ... que, con el cucrpo ligcramente flexionado hacia delante, vierte el contenido de un anfora, en una actitud que no se ha sabido hasta el momento interpretar y que sin embargo ICONOGRAPHIC PARALLELS 67 clearly an askos with a handle, not an oil-amphora, as he suggests; and this puts too much emphasis on the one case in the material that shows the act of pouring.49 The oil-trade is more likely to be at the origin of the aryballos-md- strigils type, which I cover in the next section; the association of the aryballos- and-strigils with the man-with-the-'shovel' on no. 33 should be noted. 3.2 Split-ring, aryballos and strigils An important type in both the central Italian and Baetican materials is a set of athlete's toilet instruments, consisting of a split carrying-ring, from which hang an aryballos of oil for anointing the body, and two strigils for scraping it off, arranged symmetrically around it.-S() In the central Italian material, both bronze and lead are struck; in the Baetican, lead only. I know of no use of this object elsewhere as a coin type. 3.2.1 The central Italian material GROUP 11 Obv.:Bearded head of Vulcan in wreathed pileus right; tongs behind; T-CAIO before; border of dots. Rev.:Ring, from which are suspended two strigils and an aryballos; caduceus to left; F to right; border of dots. 2>9 m 19 * 4.07 4.189 Rev. . Cornucopia; border of dots. 40 M 19 i 32.005 These pieces are relatively common in the Liri material; I have recorded over twenty (both types included). creemos que es facil hacerlo a la luz de cuanto nemos venido exponiendo: se trata dc un acto de dilTusio y por tanto las fichas en cuestion hay que verlas en el marco dc actividad de los diffiisores' (p. 8). 49 I am also worried by the date assigned to the Baetican material by Chic, that is. the first two centuries AD: all the numismatic evidence from the central Italian assemblage points to the first century BC; to accept the later date for the Baetican material would imply delinking the two assemblages, which seems unlikely. 50 A number of examples have survived; I illustrate a specimen in the British Museum, of the first or second century BC (BM Cat. Bronzes 2455). I thank the British Museum for permission. Martin Price first identified this type for me. 68 CLIVE STANNARD GROUP 12 Obv.: Bearded, long-haired male figure standing left, leaning on a staff in his left hand, and holding a patera in his outstretched right hand. Jtev.:Dog standing right, carrying a ring in mouth, from which are suspended two strigils and an aryballos. Small dies on large flans: 15 mm diameter border of dots. 41 « 28 ■» 6.64 8.003 SNG Dan, uncertain of Etruria 44-45. /tev.:Same, but dog springing right. Overstruck: the overtypes are SNG Dan. uncertain of Sicily 1075-6: Obv.: Helmcted head of Minerva right; bordcrof dots. Rev.: Eagle's head right: border of dots. 42 JE 23 7.51 0.192 Paris Z3148 (this coin). Obv.: Panther standing right, its left fore-paw raised to hold a thyrsus-over its shoulder;-51 border of dots. /??v.:Samc, but dog standing right. 43 JE 14 -» 2.64 0.080 BM uncertain SP pi. 2872 3/7 (this coin) quadrans 0bv.:Male figure, wearing pileus, and holding long-handled spear(?) forwards, advancing right; TI to left, r-CAF to left; border of dots. Rev.iDog, wearing a collar, advancing right, carrying a ring with two strigils and an aryballos suspended from it in its jaws; ~- above. 44 PbS 15 N 32.020 Obv.:Naked male figure standing three-quarters left, a cloak on his left arm, holding an aryballos and two strigils suspended from a carrying- ring; AIS-... to right; border of dots. /?t?v.:Unidcntified shape;52 border of dots. 45 PbS 15 3.08 6.066 These pieces, with the exception of no. 45, all show a dog carrying the aryballos and strigils. If no. 43 is, as it seems, a fraction of nos. 41 and (perhaps an as and quadrans), this too is evidence for the monetary function of these 51 This is the reverse type of the commonest bronze pieces in the central Italian assemblage; I have catalogued over 200 specimens. The obverse has an ivy-crowned head of Dionysus right. (For specimens, see SNG Dan Capua?, nos. 342-350.) 52 I have not been able to interpret this type, although it is perfectly clear. ICONOGRAPHIC PARALLELS 69 70 CL1VE STANNARD pieces; so is the quadrantal value mark on no. 44. Nos. 41 and 42 are occasionally overstruck with other types of the central Italian assemblage, none datable.53 GROUP 13 0/>v.:Ring, from which are suspended two strigils and an aryballos. /?ev.:Purse, or skin-bag stretched on a frame(?)54 46 PbS 17 V 23.014 /tev.:Same, but TTONTA below. 47 PbS 12 "s 23.017 Ofov.rHcad of Vulcan wearing pileus right. ftev.:Same, but no legend. 48 PbS 10 — 1.62 23.064 GROUP 14 Obv.: Hercules standing right, a club in his right hand, placing something on an altar to right; macaronic legend between. Rev.:R\ng, from which are suspended two strigils and an aryballos; macaronic legend (...AH5IVT) around. Struck on an unusually large flan for this issue. 49 PbS 33 *•» 34.16 27.001 3.2.2 The Baetican material GROUP 15 Obv..'Horseman prancing right, spearing a boar running right.-5 Rev. . Foot left; ring from which hang two strigils left; border of dots. 50 PbS 23-26 10.9-19.1 7.028 Plomos p. 23, no. 6 53 For no. 42, see the description of the overstriking in the text. I know a specimen of no. 41, overstruck by an unpublished issue: Obv.: Laureate head of Apollo right; Rev.: Cista with two thyrsi and two panthers' skins arranged symmetrically over it. 54 If a purse, it may link to the type, Mercury-holding-a-purse, which is also used in the central Italian issues; two are cited here as nos. 66 and 67. 55 The horseman type links this group to the Athena-head group of Plomos, p. 22, 1 to p. 23,5. Plomos p. 23,8, combines the horseman type with the mule's-head type used on no. 1C0N0GRAPH1C PARALLELS 71 Obv.. Mule's head right; star before; L-HER below; border of dots. /tev./Foot right, wearing sandal, with tie-strings at mid-calf; ring, from which are suspended two strigils to right; P-C-AN M-C around; border of dots. 51 PbS 18-29 8.5-16.8 7.030 Cf. Plomos p. 24, no. 9 Obv. . Same, but star and crescent before. 52 PbS 17 31.004 Plomos p. 2, no. 9"; Cayon (this piece) triens Obv.. Same but NL below, DE L below; j before. 53 PbS 23 -» 31.006 Cf. Plomosp.24,no.9'; Cayon (this piece) Ob v.; Foot right, wearing sandal. Rev. .-Split ring, from which are suspended two strigils and an amphora- shaped aryballos; star to left; border of dots. 54 PbS 18 / 31.003 Plomos p. 25, no. 12; Cayon (this piece) Rev.:S&me, but wheel (not star) to right; border of dots. 55 Pbs 22 T 10.35 23.048 I know of no example of the foot type on central Italian material; although no. 55 has a central Italian provenance, I believe it is a rare case of Baetican material found in Italy. GROUP 16 Obv. . Head of Vulcan wearing pileus right. /tev.:Split ring, from which are suspended two strigils and an amphora- shaped aryballos; star to left; border of dots. 56 PbS 21 6.5-10.5 7.038 Plomos p. 25, no. 13 GROUP 17 Obv.:Askos right; border of dots. Rev.:S'&me, but no symbol, and elliptical aryballos. 57 PbS 23 *•» 8.63 100.056 Aureol5Dec. 1994,no. 2309 (this piece) This piece combines thearyba//o.v-and-strigils andaskos types, which are notfoundtogetherelsewhereineither the central Italian or the Baetican material. 72 CLIVE STANNARD GROUP 18 quadrans Obv.:Amphora; Q-PACCI up to left; unidentifiable objeet to right; border of dots. Rev.;Same, but ball-shaped aryballos; 5 to left; border of dots. 58 PbS 27 — 19.03 33.004 Pliego (this eoin) Obv. . Same, but only amphora visible. /tev.. Same, but amphora-shaped aryballos, and no value-mark visible; border of dots. 59 PbS 13 / 1.95 100.058 Aureol5Dec.1994.no. 2303 9 (this piece) 3.2.3 Discussion The significance of the ary/?«//«.v-and-strigils type is not obvious. One possibility is that the reference is to athletics, which might suggest that these are gymnasium tokens: it is, however, difficult to explain the variety of types as all being gymnasium tokens.56 The repeated and charming conceit of the dog carrying the a lyballos and strigils in its mouth may have some special significance, but what I cannot say. I believe it is more likely that these types refer to the olive- oil industry, that is, that the sense lies in the contents of the aryballos. This is supported by the amphora that appears on the obverse of nos. 58 and 59, and by the amphora-shaped aryballos on nos. 49, 54-56, and 59. On the same hypothesis, that the vessel stands for its contents, a further reference to the oil-trade may lie in the following pieces, with the oil-lamp and amphora. quadrans 0fcv.:Oil-lamp right; above; CN-CORNIILI-r-S below. Rev.: Amphora, with a rope(?) draped over the top; CN-CORNIILI-r-S around; border of dots. r>0 PbS 17 \ 3.23 27.070 Obv.: Blank. 61 PbS 12 1.28 23.035 0/?\\:Oil-lamp with mouth right. Rev.: Unclear. 62 PbS 15 / 2.14 23.072 56 Note. too. the quadrantal value of nos. 44 and 58. and the triental valucof no, 53, which suggests that these pieces had a monetary function. IC0N0GRAPH1C PARALLELS 73 65 66 67 74 CLIVE STANNARD Ofov.:Helmeted head of Minerva right; border of dots. Rev.:0'\\-\amp right; border of dots. 63 JE 14 T 1.64 30.002 These pieces are all of central Italian provenance.57 Brother Dominic Ruegg notes that '[an] important family registered once on the inscriptions [at Minturnae] is that of Cornelii Lentuli. The Lentuli stamp occurs on amphorae throughout the Mediterranean and gives evidence of a vast commerce in wine, which very probably originated in the area of Minturnae' ,58 Whether or not the Lentuli of the amphorae are related to our issuer, these pieces could refer to oil- production in central Italy. I am at a loss to explain the link between the aryballos and strigils and the sandalled foot59 (and other types) in the Baetican material, if there are indeed semantic links. 3.3 Vulcan A head of Vulcan, bearded or beardless, is one of the commonest types in both the central Italian and Baetican assemblages. A number of issues with Vulcan types are cited elsewhere, under the other type they carry; I shall not list them again here.60 3.3.1 The central Italian material GROUP 19 Ofcv./Hcad of Vulcan, wearing pileus, right; tongs on shoulder; /V before; all in wreath tying below. /tev.:Winged Victory standing right, and holding out wreath; all in laurel-wreath, tying below.*" 64 M 17 2.21 0.054 BM uncertain, 1866.12- 1.4344 (this coin) 57 Nos. 60 to 63 are relatively common in the Liri material: I know of over 20 specimens, including those published by Ruegg, 'Underwater Investigations...', nos. 9.36 and 9.38. 58 Ibid.,p.76. 59 Garcfa-Bellido, 'Nuevos Documentos...', p. 27: 'Es posible que estos trientes deban relacionarse con los servicios de reparacion y compra de calzado, que sabemos por las Leyes de Vipasca ... que eran obligatorios en las minas con regimen de monopolio...' 60 Nos. 20, 28-31, 38, 39 and 40, 56 and 108. 61 This is the fraction of a larger piece (not illustrated here) with the same reverse types, and Obv:. Mercury, wearing tunic, petasus and cloak, striding right. ICONOGRAPHIC PARALLELS 75 GROUP 20 Obv./Same but anepigraphic, and border of dots. Rev.: Winged head of Medusa facing; TALACINV; border of dots. Overstruck; undertypes illegible. 65 JE 17 1 4.65 0.423 SNG Milan Pallanum 22 (this coin) Sambon gives the issue to Pallanum, Frentani62 (with a second issue that I do not illustrate, because it is not a shared type);631 doubt the attribution, and regard these, and a third issue with the same legend,64 as parts of the central Italian assemblage. GROUP 21 Group 21 is of a variety of issues, all bronze, by members of the Annia family, (usually with legends that include the ligate letters, N),65 and associated issuers; some pieces are anepigraphic. The whole group is from central Italy. Obv.:Same. Rev.: Mercury standing, holding out a purse to left in his right hand, and a caduceus on his left arm; N to right; border of dots. 66 JE 13 V 2.07 0.003 Obv.: Vulcan standing left, wearing pileus, a cloak over his left arm and a hammer in his right hand; N behind; border of dots. holding a long caduceus in one hand, and a purse in the other. JE 22 ^ 7.95 0.051 BM uncertain, SP pi. 2873 5/2 (this coin). 62 Arthur Sambon, Les Monnaies antiques cle I 'Italie (Paris, 1903), p. 120, no. 196. 63 Obv.: Helmeted female head righr; the howl of (he helmet is a winged griffin, the visor a winged dragon; border of dots. Rev.: TAL in an oak-wreath tied right. JE 17 T 6.28 0.142 Paris Z3147 (this coin); Sambon p. 120, no. 195. 64 Obv. : Head of Janus, border of dots. Rev.: Victory crowning trophy right; TAL in exergue; border of dots. JE 18 <f 5.40 0.161 ParisAilly 1331= Bahr. 190486/ 1 (this coin), given to Palermus, Sicily: 65 Seefn. 20. 76 CL1VE STANNARD 67 JE 16 1.76 0.326 Berlin Lobbccke (this coin) Nos. 66 and 67 are parts of a much larger group oflinked types: Mercury- standing-with-a-purse is also used in combination with Hercules-standing- with-a-club; this then links to a soldier-advancing-with-sword-and-shield, a hand, and a butterfly; the last links to a fan-shell type. Obv.:Bearded head of Janus. Rev.:\\ead of Vulcan right, tongs over shoulder.6^ 68 m 19 — 5.80 0.416 Milan M.986.14.103 (this coin) Obv.: Head of Vulcan wearing pileus right; border of dots. /?ev.:Head of Mercury wearing petasus right; border of dots. 69 JE 16 -» 2.23 0.420 Milan M.986.14.122 (this coin) Rev.:Bearded head of Hercules right. 70 Ai 15 T 1.11 0.246 Copenhagen uncertain (this coin); Bahr. 1904 104 /?<'\-. . Head of young Hercules wearing lion's skin right; border of dots. 71 JE 15 1.27 0348 Berlin Ross (this coin) Oft*'. .-Bearded head of Janus; border of dots. Head of Vulcan, wearing pileus, right, tongs on shoulder; L'NNI behind; border of dots. 72 JE 18 r 3.90 14.002 Rev.:Same, but anonymous. 73 JE 17 / 3.47 0.481 Oftv.:Head of Vulcan wearing pileus right, tongs on shoulder. /tev..Laureate(?) male head right, ...ANNI around. 74 Ac. 19 — 2.79 0.273 Copenhagen uncertain (this coin) /fev.:Head of Mercury wearing petasus right; N before; border of dots. 75 Az 16 \ 2.58 0.152 Paris F4127 = Bahr. 1904 68,2 (this coin) 66 1 know of one specimen of this issue overstruck by the common central Italian issue (see fn. 51): Ohv.: Dionysus right; Rev Pmither right, with thyrsus on its shoulder. ICONOGRAPHIC PARALLELS 77 68 69 70 71 73 >V $0 IP1 85 86 87 88 89 78 CLIVE STANNARD 76 /E 17 f 2.13 0.419 Milan. M.986.14.120 (this coin) Obv. .-Head of Mercury, wearing winged petasus, right, caduceus on shoulder; N below. Rev.: Vulcan, kneeling left, and holding a large pair of tongs at ground level; border of dots. Overstruck; the undertypcs are not recognisable. 77 Az 18 2.00 16.006 Obv.sMale figure striding right, carrying something over his shoulder. Rev.:Vulcan, wearing pileus, kneeling right, hammer over shoulder; border of dots. 78 A- 17 \ 2.25 16.020 Obv.: Head of Vulcan right, wearing a pileus; tongs on shoulder; border of dots. /frv./Head of Mercury, wearing a winged petasus; caduceus on shoulder; L'GAE before; border of dots. 79 Az 20 \ 3.48 0.213 SNG Dan 1058 (this coin) Rev.: Bearded head of Hercules right; border of dots; L* C... before. 80 Az 15 «" 1.09 0347 Berlin Dressel (this coin) The last piece is overstruck: on the obverse, facing 12 o'clock, is visible the forepart of a lion, right. The undertype is probably the same as no. 12. This would give a date 90s BC, or later. Obv.: Head of Vulcan right, wearing a pileus; tongs on shoulder; border of dots. Rev.:Quadriga right. 81 ^ 19 — 3.43 0.165 Paris, no reference. Struck on a Republican quadrats', broken. Rev.: Victory driving quadriga right; STATITREBO. 82 AL 15 «" 1.76 0.178 ParisAF.I44=Babelon, Vol. II, p. 467, "Statia" = M. Grant, From Imperium to Auctoritas, p. 52 (III 7) (this coin). 1 know two specimens of the last issue, one of which shares an obverse die with the next piece. The other is struck over a quadrans, and is itself overstruck by a piece with the types of no. 81, but probably anonymous. /tev..Victory carrying wreath right. 83 Az 16 \ 2.46 6.058 1C0N0GRAPH1C PARALLELS 79 quadrans Obv.:Samc; • behind. Rev.:Facing figure; border of dots. 84 JE 18 / 3.79 0.359 Berlin Rauch (this coin). GROUP 22 The following are miscellaneous issues with Vulcan obverses. Obv.:Same, but no value-mark. Rev.:lAon running right; M below; linear border. 85 S. 14 ■* 1.63 6.036 Rev.:Anchor in wreath tying above. 86 JE 14 -* 1.46 6.050 Rev.:Different form of anchor; wreath ties below. 87 JE 17 T 1.39 14.007 Obv.:Same, but cornucopia^!) behind. /tev./Male figure seated left on rocks; border of dots. 88 JE 15 / 1.46 14.018 . Obv. .-Bearded head of Vulcan, wearingpileus, right; tongs on shoulder. Rev./Soldier standing facing, right arm raised, holding a trumpet(?); standard to left. 89 PbS 15 / 3.01 18.074 3.3.2 The Baetican material GROUP 23 Obv.: Beardless head of Vulcan wearing pileus right. fiev..-Boar(?)67 right. 90 PbS 39 7.021 Plomos p. 29, no. 16 Obv.Same; S before; all in wreath tied below. Rev.-.Vulcan wearing pileus seated left, holding out some object in his right hand; AES to left; CED to right; all in wreath tied below. 91 PbS 47 T 31.011 Plomos p. 30, no. 18; Caydn (this piece) 67 The piece forms part of a group of issues not Usted here with the boar type (plomos 28- 9, nos. 8-15); these link to the filleted-bull' s-head and man-with-the-'shovel' types (see fn. 31). 80 CLIVE STANDARD Obv.:Same, but beardless, no S, and wreath tied above. Rev.: Axe, with handle left, in wreath tied right. 92 PbS 48 116 100.085 Aureo 28 Sept. 1993, no. 303 (this piece)68 Obv.. Same, but bearded; HISPA... before /tev.. Bundle of five arrows. 93 PbS 46 101 7.042 Plomos p. 31, no 20 The last piece is important for the relationship between the central Italian and Baetican assemblages, because of the legend's specific reference to Spain, whether or not wc agree with Garcfa-Bellido's suggestion that the legend may be interpreted as an epithet of Vulcan.69 Obv./Same; possibly a legend around; border of dots. Rev..'Figure seated left; ARI(?) behind; border of dots. 94 PbS 26 14 7.043 Plomos p. 31, no 21 0M>..Same, but beardless; tongs and NT before; border of dots. /tev./Stag leaping right; M-C behind; ...ERVIO in exergue. 95 PbS 21 9.1 7.044 Plomos p. 24, no. 14 Obv.:Same, but legend uncertain. Rev.. Same, but no exergue, bird below and •• above. 96 PbS 20 \ 6.58 100.057 Plomos p. 25, no. 15 GROUP 24 97 Obv.:Same. Rev.:Bul\ right, XXJ9i> below. JE 26 \ 5.39 0.417 Milan, M.986.14.118 (this coin) This specimen has a Liri provenance. It is overstruck—like most known specimens—on Ebusus.70 The issue is important, as the only one in the Baetican assemblage to carry a legend in a language other than Latin. 68 This seems to be the same specimen—said to have been found in Catalonia—that was published as uniquein Leandre Villaronga, 'Plomos monetiformesdelaCitiordeepocaromano- republicana', Rivista Italicma di Numismatica e Scienze Affini XCV (1993), p. 318, no. 19. 69 'Sobre el Culto de Volcanvs y Svccllvs en Hispania: Testimonies', in J. Acre and F. Burkhalter, Bronces y Religion, Actus del XI Congreso Internacional de Bronces Antiguos. Madrid, Mayo-Junio 1990, pp. 164; 'iSc tratadel cognomen de ladivinidad representada?'. 70 Group XIX, now dated by Campo to c. 91-27 BC: Obv.: Bes; rev.: 9A3af—OHH; (Ebusus p. 51 and pi. XVII, no. XIX-C, shows a specimen of this overtype, struck on the same 1CONOGRAPHIC PARALLELS 81 82 CLIVE STANNARD GROUP 25 Obv. .Same. Rev.:Tv/o figures facing each other, on an exergual line. 98 PbS 17 / 9.44 33.009 Pliego (this coin) 3.3.3 Discussion Does Vulcan unequivocally denote mining, and is this the reason for his appearance in the central Italian and Baetican assemblages? As we have seen, the man with a "shovel' probably does not, which removes one support for such an interpretation. Vulcan is not a common type on Greek or Roman coinage. In Italy, Vulcan is used in Populonia and Vetulonia, Etruria;71 Populonia alone;72 Ariminum, Umbria;7-5 Aeseinia, Samniuin;7'1 Lipara;75 and Rome. Of these, only the Etruscan issues assuredly refer to metal-working, and because Etruria was a mining centre, we gain little from speculating whether the reference is restricted to manufacturing, or also encompasses mining. The reference in undertype; so does CNHAA p. 115,3). These later pieces of Ebusus have not. to the best of my knowledge, been found in the river Liri, which is remarkable, given the large number of specimens of earlier issues found. 71 halo Vecchi, ■TheCoinageof the Rasna, part IV, Swiss Numismatic Revue 72 (1993). pp. 63-73, nos. 1 and 2, sextans of c. 215-211 DC. Obv: HeadofScthlans | Vulcan | right, wearing laurel-wreathedpileus; i and ship's prow to left; border of dots. Rev.: VVflt33 AMV78VA Al around hammer and tongs; : in centre. 72 Ibid., nos. 41 to 44, lOdecimae-triens of after 200 BC. Obv.: Head of Sethlans | Vulcan) right, wearing laurel-wreathed pileus; t X and A to either side: border of dots Rev. Hammer and tongs on cither side of |: UMVVAVA below; border of dots. 73 Sambon no. 155, third century BC. uncia; the identification of Vulcan is conjectural, as the usual attribute of the tongs is missing: Obv.: Bearded head of Vulcan(?) wearing pileus left. Rev.: Gaulish warrior with shield ands spear advancing left; ARIM below. 74 Sambon 184-9, third century BC, litra: Obv.: Head of Vulcan in wreathed pileus, to left or right; VOLCANOS in a variety of styles before: border of dots. Rev. Jupiter in a biga right, hurling a thunderbolt, the horses sometimes crowned by Victory; AESERNINO in a variety of styles in exergue. 75 Hephaistos was the standard type of Lipara. Grant therefore assigned all the issues with Vulcan types he knew of, and related issues, to Lipara, as a military mint under Octavian, 1CONOGRAPH1C PARALLELS 83 Lipara is clearly to vulcanism, not mining, and Head argues that, in the case of Aesernia, 'the head of Vulcan is appropriate in a country where earthquakes are of frequent occurrence, supposing that the connexion between seismic and volcanic phenomena was recognised in the third century bc' .76 Whether or not we accept this suggestion, there is no evidence that Vulcan at Aesernia reflects mining. Because of its geographical proximity, Vulcan at Aesernia is the most likely model—if a model is needed—for Vulcan in the central Italian assemblage,77 and, if so, may be the model for the Baetican Vulcan as well. Vulcan appears sporadically on the coins of the Roman Republic. His bust, wearing a pileus, with tongs over his shoulder, was the standard obverse type of the unusual dodrans denomination, which was struck twice only: Cr. 263/2, MMETELLVS M-F, of 127 bc, and Cr. 266/2, CCASSI, of 126 bc. His bust also appears onadenarius serratus, Cr. 314/1, L-COT, of 105 bc, where the 'type recalls the standard obverse type of the coinage of I .ipara, captured by C. Aurelius Cotta, Cos. 252',78 and, in miniature, above the Lares Praestites seated facing, a dog between them, on a denarius of L-CAESI, Cr. 298/1, of 112 or 111 bc.79 His attributes {pileus, tongs, hammer and anvil) appear on the reverse of the denarius, Cr. 464, T«C ARISIVS III VIR, of 46 bc, in assoc iation with the obverse type of Juno Moneta, to represent the moneyer's art. They occur again (tongs, anvil and hammer) on the three of the four sides of the Puteal Scribonianum shown on two denarii of 62 bc, Cr 416/la, b and c, LIBO, and Cr. 417/la and b. PAVLLVS LEPIDVS, LIBO; the 'symbols of Vulcan ... recall the fact that the Puteal occupied the spot where it did because this had been struck by a thunderbolt'.80 In none of these types is Vulcan associated with in 37 and 36 BC, and glossed the various issuers' names accordingly (FITA, p. 52). However, the Liri provenances; the use of lead (unattested in Lipara); the total lack of sure Liparan pieces in the 'foreign' Liri material; and the dating implied by overstrikings. of c. 90 BC. make the attribution unlikely. 76 Barclay V.Head, HistoriaNumorum (London, 191 l),p.27. But. to the Greeks at least, Poseidon not Hephaistos was the 'earth-shaker'. 77 Aesernia was the last capital of the rebels in the Social War (91 -87 BC). Because of the similarities of date, I have sometimes wondered if part of the central Italian assemblage did not arise from the Social War. 78 RRC p.322. 79 As Crawford comments, 'The significance of the bust of Vulcan is not apparent', ibid., p. 312. 80 Ibid, p. 442. 84 CL1VE STANNARD mining: his primary aspect is fire, and, by extension, artifice—particularly metal-working—and the thunderbolt; hisability to find wells suggests secondary agricultural functions. In Spain, apart from the lead and bronze pieces listed above, one mint habitually uses a Vulcan obverse type: Malaka. Garcfa-Bellido has argued that the figure is, in fact, the Phoenician god, Chusor-Phath,81 assimilated to a local god, Sucellus, who was later also assimilated to the Greco-Roman iconography used for Vulcan on the Baetican issues I have listed.82 But the frequent use of the Vulcan type in central Italy, in issues obviously associated with the Baetican material, weakens the argument, and suggests a simpler adoption, in Spain, of ready-made Greco-Roman concepts and icons.8:? The Italian parallels suggest that the primary references of the type need not be to mining. Amongst the Baetican types are two more that may refer to mining (discounting the man with the 'shovel'); neither is certain. Garcfa-Bellido interprets the object on the reverse of no. 33 as an ingot cast with a carrying 81 'Este culto piinico Chusor en la Peninsula lo conocfamos ademas gracias a la ciescripci6n polibianade la Carthagonova barci'dadondc... se veneraba unadivinidadminera que Polibio llama Hefaistos',"... Vulcanvs y Svcellvs p. 162. 82 'Creo pues, que estas piczas monetales mineras no aluden a Volcanus, sino a un divinidad indfgena, cuya primcra inicrpretatio fue la de Chusor, puesto que sabemos que Ios piinicos explotaron tempranamente el mineral de Villaricos, Carthagonova y Cdstulo ... y es muy posible que en esta primera inierpretatio el dios indfgena de la minerfa recibiera ya una iconograffa heltSnica, la de Hefaistos' (ibid., p. 165). 83 Francisca Chavez Tristan and Maria Cruz Marin Ceballos suggest that elements of Phoenician iconography gradually reappeared in the representation of Chusor at Malaka: 'Le type de HiSphai'stos de la He periodc rcpond claircmeni a l'iconographie classique pour les dieux de la metallurgie. Initialcment done, lorsque la ville a voulu representer le dieu metallurgique local sur ses monnaies, elle a adopte cette forme bien connue de tout marchand m^diterraneen ct.evidement. romain... Nous arrivons a la troisieme pdriodeet I' iconographie change. Maintenant. au lieu du type classique pour Hephaisios-Vulcanus, nous trouvons une tete imberbc coiffee d'une tiara cylindrique typiquement punique. Mais elle est toujours accompagnec des tenailles. II est done evident qu'il s' agit du meme dieu, mais l'iconographie en est ph^nico-punique. A notre avis, il est du plus grand interet, du point de vue hisloriquc, d'observer cette reapparition de l'6l6ment punique a Malaca ('L'influence phdnico-puniquc sur l'iconographie des frappes locales de la peninsulc ibtSrique', in Tony Hackens and Ghislaine Mouchatre (eds), Numismatique et histoire economique pheniciennes etpuniques (Actesdu CoUoque lenu a Louvain-la-Neuve, 13-16 Mai l987),Studia Phoenicia IX (1992), pp. 188-9). 1C0N0GRAPHIC PARALLELS H5 handle;84 but I think this is a jug of some sort. On the reverse of no. 24 is an instrument that she interprets either as a miner's piek, or a farmer's hoe ;xs from the shape of the blade, it appears to be an axe. The reasons behind the use of the Vulcan type in the two assemblages remain unclear. I am inclined to agree with Garcia-Belhdo that the Baetican issues may reflect intensive agricultural production by a Publico Societas, or perhaps a monopoly over both mineral and agricultural exploitation.86 The main question, to which I shall return below, is how such a phenomenon may have occasioned parallel issues in central Italy and Baetica. 3.4 Flies There are a number of Baetican issues that use the fly—as main type or ancillary type—that deserve to be drawn together, although I have no suggestion why the type is used. 3.4.I Material with a both central Italian and Baetican provenances The fly as the main type occurs on the following issue, for which we have both central Italian and Baetican provenances. 84 She notes, however, thai 'Si la interprctacion como lingote es acertada nos mostraria tin objetodel que nonhanquedadotestimoniosrealesinHispania...' CNuevosdocumentos...', p. 15). 85 Ibid., p. 29. 86 M. PazGarcia-Bellido. 'NuevosDocumentos.. .'.has rightly pointed to the importance of agriculture in relation to the plomos: 'Mi gran sorpresa al estudiar estas moncdas es que tambien debio haber, incluso en epoca republicana, sociedades similares agrarias cuyo arrendamiento o propiedad pudo plegarse a las mismas vicisitudes que las mineras. Las tdseras con P.S. ^(P(uhlicu) S(ocietas)'[lhat is, no. 22 of this article = Plomos p. 28, no. 8, to which may be linked many other pieces] 'cuya grave ya como republicana, y cuyo nombre corresponde a un quaestor como el opinaba, encajan muy bien en el ambiente post-si lano preimperial siempre que se la considcre una cxcepci6n. y de ahf su nombre. Quizas sea esta misma sociedad. aunque ello no es seguro. la que vemos cxportando aceite desde Catria en epoca imperial con el sello Partus P.S.. cuyas siglas ticnen una gratia similar a la del precinto. pcro desde luego distinta a la usada en las l6seras citadas' (p.42). 86 CLIVE STANNARD GROUP 27A: CENTRAL ITALY 99 Obv.:F\y, seen from above. /tev./Blank. PbS 19 2.68 28.005 GROUP 27B: BAETICA 100 PbS 16 4.20 31.001 Cayon (this piece) I know of at least eight pieces with central Italian provenances87, and two with Baetican88. It appears from the pieces illustrated here—and from the pieces not illustrated—that there may be stylistic differences between the central Italian and Baetican specimens (which would suggest separate strikings in the two areas) but larger samples would be needed to be able to affirm this with reasonable confidence. Even if one assumes separate strikings, it is unlikely that mere imitation is at work, and a common issuing authority must be postulated. 3.4.2 The fly as a Baetican ancillary type Obv.:Mule's head right.8y /tev..Figure seated right on a three-legged stool; fly and lizard before; L-ANI behind. 101 PbS 19-27 3.9-14.7 7.032 Cf. Plomos p. 24, no. 10 Rev.:Sams but no legend, or lizard.^ 102 PbS 18-19 3.9-5.6 7.033 Cf. Plomos p. 24, no. 87 Counting two pieces from the underwater explorations of the Liri at Minturnae published in Brother D. Ruegg, Underwater investigations, 9/36 and 9/37. 88 Both in J.R. Cayon's collection. 89 The mule is also found on nos. 51-53. GROUP 27 10' 103 Obv. . Lion, or horse, right. /tev..Man seated on a pillar(?) right; ...R behind; fly to right. PbS 20 T 4.10 100.059 Plomos p.24, no. 11; Aureo 15 Dec. 1994, no 2302 (this piece) 90 The 'fly' on these pieces- like the decorated phallus again. ;—going only by the line illustrations in Plomos—looks very 88 CLIVE STANNARD 3.5 Minerva / hand The following two pieces, one each from central Italy and Baetica, use the same types. It is impossible to tell if they both originate in one area, or whether they are parallel issues from the two areas. GROUP 28 A: CENTRAL ITALY Obv.:Helmeted head of Minerva right. /tev./Hand right, holding some object between thumb and fore-finger; CCORC... above. 104 PbS 14 T 23.027 GROUP 28 B: BAETICA Qbv.:Same, but Minerva left. Rev.:Same, but hand left, and no object or legend visible. 105 PbS 19 «s 5.09 33.003 Pliego (this coin) I cannot suggest what the hand is holding, or what the type may mean. 3.6 The Isla Pedrosa shipwreck The coins from a shipwreck off Isla Pedrosa, near Estartit, in Catalonia,91 are of considerable importance for the relationship between the central Italian assemblage and Baetica. The Isla Pedrosa shipwreck lead, although found in Spanish waters, contains types that are only otherwise known from central Italy: boy-kneeling- to-lace-or-unlace-a-standing-man's-sandals;and mouse-and-lamp. 3.6. J Boy lacing a man's sandals GROUP 29 A: CENTRAL ITALY quadrans 0 b v.: Head of Apollo right; • behind. Rev.:Boy facing left, tying the shoe, or washing the foot, of a stooping man, facing right; the man's left knee is lifted, and his left hand is on the boy's head; • to right. 106 PbS 17 -♦ 4.22 18.064 91 J.-C. Richard and L. Villaronga, 'Las monedas', in 'El yacimiento Arqueol6gico submarino ante Isla Pedrosa (Gerona)', Inmersinny Ciencia, Nos. 8-9 (June 1975), pp. 73-78. 90 CLIVE STANNARD Rev.The • to right is larger, and a second, smaller • has been added on the man's right knee. 107 PbS 17 \ 4.86 18.066 This a modified version of the reverse die used for no. 106. GROUP 29 B: 1SLA PEDROSA quadrans 06v.:Head of Vulcan wearing pileus right; tongs on shoulder; ZVR(?) behind. fl<?v.:Same, but i to right; • in field above value-mark. Described in tela Pedrosa as JE, but certainly PbS. 108 PbS 20 / 4.80 0.506 Isla Pedrosa 12 (this coin) I know of at least twelve specimens of no. 106 and 107. The Isla Pedrosa shipwreck contained two specimens of 108. 3.6.2 Mouse and lamp GROUP 30 A: CENTRAL ITALY Obv.:Bearded long-haired theatre mask right; linear border. Rev.. Oil-lamp, nozzle right; a mouse to right, standing up, left, with its fore-paws on the lamp. 109 PbS 15 \ 1.98 27.064 /tev.:Samc, but a handle has been cut through the oil-lamp, to make it into an axe; the mouse is largely off the flan. 110 PbS 15 — 2.80 29.019 GROUP 30 B: ISLA PEDROSA Described in tela Pedrosa as /E, but certainly PbS. 111 PbS 16 \ 2.59 0.508 Isla Pedrosa 14 (this coin) I know two examples of no. 109 (which share an obverse die), and the one of no. 110. No. 111 probably shares its obverse die with no. 109. The reverse die is probably the same for all pieces, modified for no. 110; why the lamp should have been turned into an axe is unclear, perhaps because the part of the die with the mouse on it had been damaged. 1C0N0GRAPH1C PARALLELS 91 3.6.3 Discussion I have not been able to see the actual coins, but L. Villaronga kindly provided me with photographs made at the time of the original publication, and from these I rcclassi tied the material as follows: lead, 9 pieces;92 Gaul, Narbonne- Beziers region inthefirsthalfofthefirstcentury BC, KAIONTOAOYBAZIA, 2 pieces;93 Naples, 4 pieces;94 Marseille?, 2 pieces;95 and a Republican as of the 2nd century BC. The wreck is direct evidence of the trade that must underlie the iconographic parallels between the two areas. That the types on these pieces are only otherwise known from central Italy; the lack of normal Spanish issues in the wreck; and the large presence of Naples, suggests that the origin of the material lies in central Italy, and that the ship was running between central Italy and Baetica. Richard and Villaronga remark on the lack of Ebusan coins and draw the conclusion that the ship's route was coastal, rather than by way of the Balearic islands. The KAIONTOAOY BALI A coins presumably reflecta visit to southern Gaul, and are without apparent significance for contacts between Spain and Italy; I know of no specimens of this issue with a central Italian provenance. The Isla Pedrosa boy-lacing-a-man' s-sandals issue is not identical to the central Italian issue: on the former, the obverse type is Vulcan; on the latter, Apollo. Moreover, on the Isla Pedrosa pieces, the view is from the side, the man is bending over and has his hands down to his sandals, and the boy is relatively upright; on the central Italian pieces, the view is from a three-quarters angle, the man is nearly upright and has put his hand on the boy's head or shoulder, and the boy has crouched right over. This graceful and unusual type is not found elsewhere, and is too particular to occur by chance in both central Italy and Baetica; it further underlines the very close ties between the two assemblages. I can, however, suggest no reason behind the iconography. The very sculptural quality suggests that it may render some statue group. 92 Isla Pedrosa!. 11,12,13,14,15,16.17 and a further piece not published \n Isla Pedrosa. These pieces, though listed as bronze, arc. I am certain, struck lead. 93 Isla Pedrosa 1, 2; CNHAA, Caudillos Galos del Este del Hcraull, p. 436, 1. 94 Isla Pedrosa 5 (cf. Sambon 651 -92), 6 (as last), 8 {cf. Sambon 742-50), 10 (cf. Sambon 698): the first three are mistakenly given to Marseille. 95 Isla Pedrosa 3, 4 (cited as de la Tour, pi. VI); the coins are very worn, and the photographs imperfect; they may well be further Neapolitan coins with the androcephalic- bull-and-Victory reverse. 92 CLIVE STANNARD The mouse-and-lamp type appears to be a single issue; as we lack any specimens from Baetica, I assume that it was struck in central Italy. Again, I can suggest no reason behind the iconography. 3.7 Baetican material from central Italy I know of only two Baetican lead pieces with central Italian provenances: no. 55, and the following piece.96 GROUP 31 A: CENTRAL ITALY OM'./Mercury seated on rock(?) left, his right hand extended; MERCVR... before. Rev.:Ftog seen from above; L-LVCIL-F. above. 112 PbS 49 i 136.56 24.056 The following single specimen has been published from Spain:947'... una Tessera de plomo inedita y preciosa hallada en el ano 1837 entre los pueblos de Enova y Manuel, junto al craneo del cadaver contenido en un antiguo sepulcro, la cual fue regalada a la Biblioteca de [la] Universidad [de Valencia] donde cuidadosamente se conserva' ,98 Pere Pau Ripolles kindly looked for and found the piece for me. GROUP 31 B: BAETICA 113 PbS 49 134.00 100.084 Biblioteca de la Universidad de Valencia (this piece) 4 CONCLUSIONS There are extensive parallels between the central Italy and Baetican assemblages. Coincidence, or unsystematic borrowing, cannot explain them because the types involved are so many, and unique to the two assemblages: we must postulate a common issuing authority, which must have been Roman, as 96 The gran plomo module—of which there is no evidence in the central Italian material—as well of the provenance of no. 113, suggests that the issue is Baetican, although we know only three pieces, two from Spain and one from central Italy. 97 I know of a second piece, shown to me by Senor Pliego. 98 Memoria de los Trabajos Llevados a Cabopor la SociedadA rqueoldgica Valenciana durante el Ano 1879, Valencia, 1880, p. 10, and illustration; Cf. Plomos,p. 87. ICONOGRAPHIC PARALLELS 93 there are no other cultural references in either the central Italian or Baetican material. By the beginning of the first century BC, a fairly uniform culture had grown up in central Italy;99 it is useless trying to untangle Roman and non-Roman elements in the types of the issues found there, but it is significant that in the entire central Italian assemblage (including issues not discussed here) there is no use of scripts other than Latin. More significant is that there are no signs of Hispanic culture i n the types used in the Baetican issues I have discussed:100 the deities are Italo-Greek; the cultural references—such as the theatre and the gymnasium—are drawn from Italy, not Spain; and on only one issue (no. 97) is a non-Latin script found. None of this is surprising, given the importance of immigration from Italy to minerally and agriculturally rich Baetica in the late Republic,101 but the implication is that these issues were used primarily amongst the Latin colonists, or, at least, that those who issued them saw no point in using types that referred to Hispanic culture. Where, then, were these issues struck? The first challenge is to decide if the two assemblages form separate and discrete bodies of material: this is not easy, firstly because our knowledge of the material is limited; many of the central Italian issues (including all the lead) have not been published before, and, until recently, there has been little systematic work on the Baetican lead.1021 have so far concentrated on the similarities between the two assemblages, which might suggest a single geographical origin;103 there are, however, also a number of significant differences. Most of the central Italian material is bronze, while there are very few bronze issues from Baetica; the central Ital ian bronze includes 99 One need only look at the coinages of the rebels in the Social War, to see how similar their iconography is to the Roman, which is hardly surprising, considering that they were fighting for, and obtained, Roman citizenship. 100 Except, it might be objected, for the inscription, HISPA..., on no. 93; but such a legend is perfectly usable by a Roman community in Spain; we have the example of the legend, HISPAN, on the Denarius serratus, Cr. 372/2, A POST AF S-N ALBIN of 81 BC. 101 Ma. Amalia Mann Diaz, 'La emigracion italica a Hispania en el siglo It A. C, StudiaHistoricaIV-V( 1986-87). 102 The unhappy rule of numismatics is that what is unattributed and unpublished is seldom considered. I should like to pay homage to the pioneering work of M. Paz Garcfa- Bellido, and Anton Casariego, Gonzalo Cores and Francisco Pliego, without which 1 should never have been led into comparing the central Italian and Baetican materials. I hope the publication of this note will draw forth any interesting Baetican material in the hands of Spanish collectors. 103 On the evidence the inscription, HISPA..., on no. 93, and of the Punic script on no. 97, this would probably be Baetica. 94 CLIVE STANNARD many overstrikes on Republican pieces, and on a variety of foreign mints (none Spanish), more likely to have travelled to Italy than to Spain; the common types are associated, in the central Italian assemblage, with a range of other types that are not common to both countries (which I have not covered here); there appear to be no issuers common to both assemblages; the central Italian lead is of relatively small diameter, whereas many of the Baetican lead issues are often on characteristically huge flans;104 and, finally, there are very few cases where specimens of an issue can with certainty be provenanced to both areas. This is sufficient evidence, I feel, to suggest that the two materials were struck separately, in Baetica and central Italy. Who, then, could have needed to strike these co-ordinated issues? There is no evidence in the iconography that they are linked to military activities; the types are refreshingly pacific for the late Republic. It seems unlikely that the phenomenon of Italic settlement in Baetica, per se, should have caused the issues in central Italy, as well. The most likely candidate is a Publico Societas105 exploiting both the Baetican and north Campanian olive-oil industries and, in the case of Baetica, perhaps the mining sector as well. If we were dealing only with production in Baetica, for consumption in Rome, then there would be no necessary contact with central Italy, and the issues there would be impossible toexplain. Moreover, if these pieces found their use in the shipping and diffusion of the products,106 then specimens would presumably have been recovered 104 The so-called 'grandesplomos''. 105 Many of the Baetican grandes plomos are inscribed P-S (including our nos.22- 24). Garcia-Bellido suggests that "Una posible interpretacion sin base suficiente para ser defendida, seria la lectura dc P(ublica) Sfocietas)..., y se trataria por su nombre de una unica sociedad publica frentc a otros muchas privadas. lo cual parece bicn atestiguado para Esparia a partir de Sila, fechas que probablemcnte las antiguas explotacioncs arrendadas por los equites se venden a particulares. Es comprensibilc que el estado, o el municipio mas cercano, se hubiese reservado la explotacion de alguna mina o tierra dc labranza, y se permitiesc marcar. por su excepcionalidad. sus monedas, teseras y precintos como pertenencientes a la res pu- blica. Pues bien, si estuvi£semos en lo cierto al interpretarasi las siglas, tendriamos que pensar entonresen fechas post-silanas preimperiales'. 'Nuevos Documentos...', pp. 29f. It is possible that the legend on the central Italian issue, nos. 60 and 61. CN-CORNIILI-r-S, contains a reference to the same entity, if the identification is correct, but this single occurrence, as part of a personal legend, is insufficient to build on. 106 A very large part of the lead issues from central Italy can be provenanced to the river Liri at Minturnae, an important river port; it is therefore conceivable that they played some specific role in the Baetican trade (such as loading tallies), and were all brought by sea from there (as the presence of lead issues in the Isla Pcdrosa shipwreck might suggest.) However, much of the copious central Italian bronze material in northern European collections, acquired by travellers in the nineteenth century, is of dry-land provenance. On balance, I believe this hypothesis may be discounted. 1CONOGRAPHIC PARALLELS 95 from Ostia, or Rome itself, which is not the case.1(17 Did they have a monetary function? The value-marks that appear in both areas, on both bronze108 and lead, suggest that they did.109The phenomenon of uncial value-marks on lead110 is significant. They differ in this from the lead tesserae of the imperial period, which do not have value-marks, even when they served as tokens that gave the holder the right to a fixed amount of goods (such as grain), or specific services (such as entry to a function). In theory, the 107 There are none in M. Rostowzew, Tesserarum Urbis Romae el Suburbi PI ii in beam in Sylloge (St. Petersburg. 1903), nor examples of normal tesserae with the types we are considering (Roman tesserae are normally east, whereas our issues are invariably struck). 108 Value-marks on bronze cause little surprise, because bronze is accepted as a "normal * coinage metal, and one with a recognisable value, defined in relation to silver, within the Republican monetary system. 109 By 'monetary function' I mean that the issues were put into circulation by some authority, as a medium of exchange, at least within the group that that authority controlled. I therefore exclude the large numbers of central Italian pieces imitating Republican quadrantes, considered by Crawford in 'Unofficial imitations and small change...'. but it must be realised that these were part of a monetary phenomenon in its own right, of importance in understanding the economy of central Italy in the late Republic, in the context of which the production of our issues must probably be placed. (The question may also be complicated by 'unofficial' copying of the 'monetary' issues, and by the emission, by the issuing authority, of tokens and tickets that were never intended to have value, but that used similar types. The fly issue (nos. 99 and 100) is probably an example.) Chavez, in considering the parallel phenomenon of Andalusian semis imitations (which she dates to c. 85-65 BC) suggests that they are semi- official issues, arising from a dearth of small change. 'Las ciudades y niicleos de asentamiento del Sur peninsular rccibirfan en distinto grado, scgiin la ventajas que en ellas obtuvieran, la presencia dc inmigrantes procedentcs de Italia. Ellos se encontrarian con establecimientos indfgenas que conocfan y usaban la moneda produciendola, si no habitualmente, sf para servicios concretos. La falta de fluidez y abastecimiento dc bronces romanos ofkiales se acentud en el primer tercio del s. I a.C Ello pudo provocar que dentro de la organizacion de sus negocios, necesitasen moneda fraccionaria parael pagode algunos servicios concretos de poca monta, pcro tal y como ya cstaban acostumbrados a hacer parte de los indi'genas. De csa manera, uno o varios grupos pudicron acordar, como medio paliativo de tal carencia. realizar unas cmisiones menores que no pretendi'an sustituir ni hacer competencia a la amonedaci6n official romana, ni mucho menos restarle nada a su principio de autoridad. pcro que. evidentemente, no tem'an derecho a llevar un nombrc de ciudad porquc no pertenccfan a ningunacomo tal', 'Hallazgode un conjunto monctal a orillas del Guadalete (Cadi/)'. p. 124. I 10 The Bactican lead issues discussed are a specific, and small, sub-group of the much wider phenomenon of struck lead, including pieces that Chic ('Diffusores olearii y tesserae de plomo') ties to the oil-trade by the coincidence of their inscriptions with amphora stamps. Senor Pliego, in January 1996, showed me several hundred more small, struck lead pieces that are most unlikely ever to have had a monetary role. I am not convinced that lead copies of Republican coins, or Hispanic issues, can usefully be grouped with the 'plomos monetiformes', and they are clearly unrelated to the central Italian material. 96 CL1VE STANNARD underlying use-value could have been identified, and described in monetary units, which would have allowed the pieces to circulate, that is, to be exchanged at value for something other than the goods or services from which they derived this value.111 There is no evidence that imperial tesserae served in this way. To the evidence of the value-marks on lead must be added the evidence of co-ordinated denominations, which is a further indication of a monetary function. One such denominational set appears to consist of the grandes plomos with the man-with-a-'shovel' type,"- and associated quadrantes}^ The evidence is very thin, the argument hazardous, and the calculations risky, but it is possible that, in this set, there were real metal-value relationships between the denominations,114 and that the denominations were tariffed at metal-value.115 Other Bactican lead issues were self-evidently fiduciary. No. 53, for example, is a triens with reported weights of 6.6-10.7g. The central Italian lead quadrantes weigh less than 3g.'16 There is one value-marked bronze issue apiece from the two areas. The few figures they provide concord well with the theoretical Lex Papiria quadrans standard of about 3.9g,'17 which suggests that they were issued on a par with circulating currency. There is also an interesting pair of issues—probably quadrantes, though unmarked—with the same types, but different modules and 111 In Italy in the 1970s and 1980s, for example, telephone jetons were regularly used in commerce at the value of a telephone-call (though this was not inscribed on them). 112 Nos. 22-26,28, 32 and 34 of this article; further linked issues are described in Plomos. 113 Nos. 25 and 29. 114 The reported weights of the grandes plomos vary widely, between about 110 and 240g; the quadrantes weigh 68.6g (no. 29) and 40.7g (30), extrapolating to as standards of about 275g and 160g respectively. 115 In lh. 25 and 29, we earlier derived hypothetical AJ:Fb ratios of 1:9 or 1:10,1:12 and 1:20: using these ratios, abronzea.s of the semi-uncial Lex Papiria standard of about 13.55g would translate to lead as standards of about 120g, 135g, 165g and 270g respectively. 116 No. 44 No. 60 Pbs Pbs N 2 13 2.61g 2.96g 0.56g 0.9 lg 117 N x s No. 31 JP. 1 3.83g Baetican No. 84 JE 3 3.65g 0.38g central Italian ICONOGRAPHIC PARALLELS 97 weight standards. The evidence is again scanty, but if it bears the argument, the issues were probably struck on either side of the Lex Papiria reform, and date to the 90s and 80s BC.118 A further interesting phenomenon is the overstriking of circulating coin (asses and quadrantes), apparently at the same nominal value as the pieces sacrificed. This implies that the motive for striking cannot have been simply to provide small change in a time of dearth, because the practice did not add to the volume of useful money in circulation.119 It also raises the question of how these issues derived their value. We have the evidence that the bronze, and at least some of the lead, probably circulated at metal-value, but metal alone does not ensure that a piece is accepted as money: the authority of the issuer is also required, made evident by types that recognisably belong to him.120 We have also seen that some of the issues were fiduciary coinage. Did they entail a promise of redemption against standard coin? Or did the value derive from the ability to use them in certain circumstances (company shops, for example), or exchange them for specific goods or services? How were they put into circulation? Were they used by the issuer to pay for labour, services, or the supply of commodities? Or were they 'sold' to the user against current, probably larger denomination money? Many questions remain. These odd and interesting pieces and the many associated pieces that I have not described—still have much to tell us about the organisation of Roman commerce and trade, as well as the economy of the late Republic. 118 N No. 36 JE 3 4.34g No. 37 JE 2 3.41g 119 I have no doubt, however, that the provision of small change was one important factor behind the mass of imitative pieces (often overstriking foreign pieces) in the larger Liri assemblage. It is also probable that small foreign coins (such as the foreign material from the Liri) may also have been pressed into service by size or weight. This argues not simply for a dearth of money in the late Republic, but for a healthy and increasingly monetary economy, because demand for coinage is a function not only of coin supply, but also of its speed of circulation. 120 If these issues were, indeed, struck by a Publico Societas, they suggest that it possessed a strong corporate authority and organisation. This is even more the case if its writ ran in both central Italy and Baetica. 0.50g 0.14g